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Biology in Focus - Chapter 38

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Biological science in Focus - Chapter 38 - Nervous and Sensory Systems

Biology in Focus - Chapter 38 - Nervous and Sensory Systems

  1. 1. CAMPBELL BIOLOGY IN FOCUS © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson • Reece Lecture Presentations past Kathleen Fitzpatrick and Nicole Tunbridge 38 Nervous and Sensory Systems
  2. 2. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Overview: Sense and Sensibility  Gathering, processing, and organizing data are essential functions of all nervous systems
  3. 3. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Figure 38.one
  4. iv. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The ability to sense and react originated billions of years ago in prokaryotes  Hydras, jellies, and cnidarians are the simplest animals with nervous systems  In about cnidarians, interconnected nerve cells grade a nerve net, which controls wrinkle and expansion of the gastrovascular cavity Concept 38.1: Nervous systems consist of circuits of neurons and supporting cells
  5. 5. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.2 (a) Hydra (cnidarian) Spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord) Encephalon (b) Planarian (flatworm) (c) Insect (arthropod) (d) Salamander (vertebrate) Sensory ganglia Encephalon Nerve cords Eyespot Transverse nerve Segmental ganglia Brain Nerve net Ventral nerve cord
  6. 6. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc.  In more than complex animals, the axons of multiple nerve cells are oftentimes arranged together to form nerves  These gristly structures aqueduct and organize information flow through the nervous system  Animals with elongated, bilaterally symmetrical bodies have fifty-fifty more specialized systems
  7. 7. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Cephalization is an evolutionary tendency toward a clustering of sensory neurons and interneurons at the anterior  Nonsegmented worms have the simplest clearly defined central nervous organization (CNS), consisting of a pocket-sized brain and longitudinal nerve cords
  8. 8. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Annelids and arthropods have segmentally arranged clusters of neurons called ganglia  In vertebrates  The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal cord  The peripheral nervous organization (PNS) is composed of fretfulness and ganglia
  9. 9. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Glia  Glia accept numerous functions to attend, back up, and regulate neurons  Embryonic radial glia form tracks along which newly formed neurons migrate  Astrocytes (star-shaped glial cells) induce cells lining capillaries in the CNS to form tight junctions, resulting in a blood-brain bulwark
  10. 10. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.iii Ependymal cell Neuron CNS PNS Oligodendrocyte Schwann cell Microglial cell VENTRICLE Cilia Capillary Astrocytes Intermingling of astrocytes with neurons (blue) LM 50µm
  11. 11. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Effigy 38.3a Astrocytes Intermingling of astrocytes with neurons (blue) LM 50µm
  12. 12. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Organization of the Vertebrate Nervous System  The spinal string runs lengthwise inside the vertebral column (the spine)  The spinal cord conveys data to and from the brain  It can also human activity independently of the brain as function of simple nerve circuits that produce reflexes, the trunk's automated responses to sure stimuli
  13. 13. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.4 Spinal cord Central nervous organization (CNS) Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Cranial nerves Spinal nerves Ganglia outside CNS Brain
  14. 14. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The encephalon and spinal cord contain  Gray thing, which consists mainly of neuron cell bodies and glia  White matter, which consists of bundles of myelinated axons
  15. fifteen. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc.  The CNS contains fluid-filled spaces called ventricles in the brain and the central culvert in the spinal cord  Cerebrospinal fluid is formed in the brain and circulates through the ventricles and central canal and drains into the veins  It supplies the CNS with nutrients and hormones and carries abroad wastes
  16. xvi. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. The Peripheral Nervous Organization  The PNS transmits information to and from the CNS and regulates movement and the internal surroundings  In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit information to the CNS and efferent neurons transmit information away from the CNS
  17. 17. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.5 Afferent neurons Sensory receptors Internal and external stimuli Autonomic nervous system Motor organisation Control of skeletal muscle Sympathetic sectionalization Enteric partition Control of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, glands Parasympathetic sectionalization Efferent neurons Peripheral Nervous Arrangement Central Nervous System (information processing)
  18. eighteen. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The PNS has two efferent components: the motor system and the autonomic nervous system  The motor organization carries signals to skeletal muscles and tin be voluntary or involuntary  The autonomic nervous organization regulates polish and cardiac muscles and is by and large involuntary
  19. nineteen. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The autonomic nervous arrangement has sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions  The enteric sectionalisation controls activity of the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder
  20. 20. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The sympathetic division regulates the "fight-or- flight" response  The parasympathetic division generates opposite responses in target organs and promotes calming and a render to "rest and digest" functions
  21. 21. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 38.two: The vertebrate encephalon is regionally specialized  The man brain contains 100 billion neurons  These cells are organized into circuits that can perform highly sophisticated information processing, storage, and retrieval
  22. 22. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 38.6a
  23. 23. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Figure 38.6b Medulla oblongata Embryonic brain regions Brain structures in child and adult Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Diencephalon Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Medulla oblongata (role of brainstem) Pons (role of brainstem), cerebellum Midbrain (part of brainstem) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Mesencephalon Embryo at 1 month Embryo at five weeks Spinal string Child Diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Spinal cord Pons Cerebrum
  24. 24. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.6ba Embryonic encephalon regions Brain structures in child and developed Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Diencephalon Cerebrum (includes cerebral cortex, white affair, basal nuclei) Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem) Pons (part of brainstem), cerebellum Midbrain (office of brainstem) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus) Mesencephalon
  25. 25. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 38.6bb Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Telencephalon Myelencephalon Metencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Embryo at 1 calendar month Embryo at 5 weeks Spinal cord
  26. 26. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.6bc Medulla oblongata Child Diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Spinal cord Pons Cerebrum
  27. 27. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.6c Basal nuclei Cerebellum Cerebrum Corpus callosum Cerebral cortex Left cerebral hemisphere Right cerebral hemisphere Developed brain viewed from the rear
  28. 28. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.6d Diencephalon Thalamus Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Spinal cord Brainstem Midbrain Medulla oblongata Pons
  29. 29. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Arousal and Sleep  Arousal is a state of awareness of the external world  Sleep is a country in which external stimuli are received but not consciously perceived  Arousal and sleep are controlled in role by clusters of neurons in the midbrain and pons
  30. thirty. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Sleep is an agile country for the brain and is regulated by the biological clock and regions of the forebrain, which regulate the intensity and elapsing of sleep  Some animals have evolutionary adaptations that let for substantial action during sleep  For example, in dolphins, only i side of the encephalon is asleep at a time
  31. 31. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Effigy 38.7 Location Left hemisphere Right hemisphere Time: ane 60 minutes Fundamental Fourth dimension: 0 hours Low-frequency waves characteristic of sleep High-frequency waves characteristic of wakefulness
  32. 32. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Biological Clock Regulation  Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are examples of cyclic rhythms, daily cycles of biological activity  Mammalian circadian rhythms rely on a biological clock, a molecular mechanism that directs periodic gene expression  Biological clocks are typically synchronized to light and dark cycles and maintain a roughly 24-hour cycle
  33. 33. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.  In mammals, circadian rhythms are coordinated by a group of neurons in the hypothalamus chosen the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)  The SCN acts as a pacemaker, synchronizing the biological clock
  34. 34. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Emotions  Generation and feel of emotions involve many brain structures including the amygdala, hippocampus, and parts of the thalamus  These structures are grouped as the limbic organization
  35. 35. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc.  Generation and experience of emotion also crave interaction between the limbic arrangement and sensory areas of the cerebrum  The brain structure that is most of import for emotional retentiveness is the amygdala
  36. 36. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Effigy 38.8 Thalamus Hypothalamus Amygdala Olfactory bulb Hippocampus
  37. 37. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. The Brain'south Reward Arrangement and Drug Addiction  The brain'due south reward system provides motivation for activities that enhance survival and reproduction  The brain'south reward arrangement is dramatically affected past drug addiction  Drug addiction is characterized by compulsive consumption and an disability to control intake
  38. 38. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.  Addictive drugs such equally cocaine, amphetamine, heroin, booze, and tobacco enhance the activity of the dopamine pathway  Drug addiction leads to long-lasting changes in the reward circuitry that cause craving for the drug
  39. 39. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Figure 38.9 Inhibitory neuronNicotine stimulates dopamine- releasing VTA neuron. Cognitive neuron of reward pathway Dopamine- releasing VTA neuron Opium and heroin subtract activity of inhibitory neuron. Cocaine and amphetamines block removal of dopamine from synaptic cleft. Reward system response
  40. 40. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Functional Imaging of the Brain  Functional imaging methods are transforming our understanding of normal and diseased brains  In positron-emission tomography (PET) an injection of radioactive glucose enables a brandish of metabolic activeness
  41. 41. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  In functional magnetic resonance imaging, fMRI, the field of study lies with his or her caput in the heart of a large, doughnut-shaped magnet  Brain activity is detected past changes in local oxygen concentration  Applications of fMRI include monitoring recovery from stroke, mapping abnormalities in migraine headaches, and increasing the effectiveness of brain surgery
  42. 42. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.10 Nucleus accumbens Amygdala Happy music Deplorable music
  43. 43. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.10a Nucleus accumbens Happy music
  44. 44. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Effigy 38.10b Amygdala Lamentable music
  45. 45. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Concept 38.three: The cognitive cortex controls voluntary move and cognitive functions  The cerebrum is essential for language, noesis, memory, consciousness, and sensation of our surroundings  The cerebral functions reside mainly in the cortex, the outer layer  Four regions, or lobes (frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal), are landmarks for particular functions
  46. 46. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 38.11 Frontal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe Parietal lobe Cerebellum Motor cortex (control of skeletal muscles) Somatosensory cortex (sense of touch) Wernicke's area (comprehending language) Auditory cortex (hearing) Broca's area (forming speech) Prefrontal cortex (decision making, planning) Sensory clan cortex (integration of sensory information) Visual clan cortex (combining images and object recognition) Visual cortex (processing visual stimuli and blueprint recognition)
  47. 47. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Language and Speech  The mapping of cognitive functions inside the cortex began in the 1800s  Broca's area, in the left frontal lobe, is active when speech is generated  Wernicke'due south expanse, in the posterior of the left frontal lobe, is agile when spoken communication is heard
  48. 48. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 38.12 Hearing words Seeing words Speaking words Generating words Max Min
  49. 49. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Lateralization of Cortical Office  The left side of the cerebrum is dominant regarding linguistic communication, math, and logical operations  The right hemisphere is dominant in recognition of faces and patterns, spatial relations, and nonverbal thinking  The establishment of differences in hemisphere function is chosen lateralization
  50. 50. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.  The two hemispheres exchange data through the fibers of the corpus callosum  Severing this connection results in a "divide brain" effect, in which the two hemispheres operate independently
  51. 51. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Information Processing  The cerebral cortex receives input from sensory organs and somatosensory receptors  Somatosensory receptors provide information most touch, hurting, force per unit area, temperature, and the position of muscles and limbs  The thalamus directs different types of input to distinct locations
  52. 52. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Frontal Lobe Function  Frontal lobe damage may impair decision making and emotional responses just leave intellect and retention intact  The frontal lobes have a substantial effect on "executive functions"
  53. 53. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.UN02
  54. 54. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Knowledge in Vertebrates  In most all vertebrates, the brain has the aforementioned number of divisions  The hypothesis that college gild reasoning requires a highly convoluted cerebral cortex has been experimentally refuted  The anatomical ground for sophisticated information processing in birds (without a highly convoluted neocortex) appears to be a cluster of nuclei in the top or outer portion of the encephalon (pallium)
  55. 55. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Figure 38.13 Cerebrum (including pallium) Thalamus Midbrain Hindbrain Cerebellum Cerebrum (including cerebral cortex) Thalamus Midbrain Hindbrain Cerebellum (a) Songbird brain (b) Human encephalon
  56. 56. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Neural Plasticity  Neural plasticity is the capacity of the nervous arrangement to be modified afterward birth  Changes can strengthen or weaken signaling at a synapse  Autism, a developmental disorder, involves a disruption of activity-dependent remodeling at synapses  Children with autism brandish dumb communication and social interaction, as well as stereotyped and repetitive behaviors
  57. 57. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.14 (a) Synapses are strengthened or weakened in response to activity. (b) If two synapses are often active at the same fourth dimension, the strength of the postsynaptic response may increase at both synapses. N1 N2 N1 N2
  58. 58. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Memory and Learning  Neural plasticity is essential to formation of memories  Short-term memory is accessed via the hippocampus  The hippocampus likewise plays a role in forming long- term retentivity, which is stored in the cerebral cortex  Some consolidation of retention is thought to occur during sleep
  59. 59. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Concept 38.4: Sensory receptors transduce stimulus energy and transmit signals to the central nervous system  Much encephalon activeness begins with sensory input  A sensory receptor detects a stimulus, which alters the transmission of activeness potentials to the CNS  The information is decoded in the CNS, resulting in a sensation
  60. 60. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Sensory Reception and Transduction  A sensory pathway begins with sensory reception, detection of stimuli by sensory receptors  Sensory receptors, which observe stimuli, interact direct with stimuli, both inside and outside the torso
  61. 61. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Sensory transduction is the conversion of stimulus free energy into a change in the membrane potential of a sensory receptor  This change in membrane potential is called a receptor potential  Receptor potentials are graded; their magnitude varies with the strength of the stimulus
  62. 62. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.xv (a) Receptor is afferent neuron. Afferent neuron (b) Receptor regulates afferent neuron. Sensory receptor To CNS Stimulus Afferent neuron Receptor protein To CNS Sensory receptor prison cell Stimulus Neurotransmitter Stimulus leads to neuro- transmitter release.
  63. 63. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Transmission  Sensory information is transmitted equally nerve impulses or action potentials  Neurons that act directly as sensory receptors produce action potentials and accept an axon that extends into the CNS  Non-neuronal sensory receptors grade chemical synapses with sensory neurons  They typically reply to stimuli by increasing the rate at which the sensory neurons produce action potentials
  64. 64. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.  The response of a sensory receptor varies with intensity of stimuli  If the receptor is a neuron, a larger receptor potential results in more frequent activity potentials  If the receptor is not a neuron, a larger receptor potential causes more neurotransmitter to be released
  65. 65. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.16 Gentle force per unit area Sensory receptor More pressure Low frequency of action potentials High frequency of activity potentials
  66. 66. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Perception  Perception is the brain's construction of stimuli  Action potentials from sensory receptors travel along neurons that are dedicated to a particular stimulus  The brain thus distinguishes stimuli, such equally light or sound, solely by the path along which the activity potentials take arrived
  67. 67. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Amplification and Adaptation  Amplification is the strengthening of stimulus energy by cells in sensory pathways  Sensory adaptation is a decrease in responsiveness to continued stimulation
  68. 68. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Types of Sensory Receptors  Based on free energy transduced, sensory receptors autumn into five categories  Mechanoreceptors  Electromagnetic receptors  Thermoreceptors  Pain receptors  Chemoreceptors
  69. 69. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Mechanoreceptors  Mechanoreceptors sense physical deformation caused by stimuli such as force per unit area, touch, stretch, move, and sound  Some animals use mechanoreceptors to get a experience for their surround  For instance, cats and many rodents take sensitive whiskers that provide detailed information near nearby objects
  70. 70. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Electromagnetic Receptors  Electromagnetic receptors discover electromagnetic free energy such as lite, electricity, and magnetism  Some snakes have very sensitive infrared receptors that detect body rut of prey against a colder groundwork  Many animals apparently migrate using Earth'south magnetic field to orient themselves
  71. 71. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.17 (b) Beluga whales (a) Rattlesnake Infrared receptor Eye
  72. 72. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.17a (a) Rattlesnake Infrared receptor Eye
  73. 73. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Effigy 38.17b (b) Beluga whales
  74. 74. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc.  Thermoreceptors detect rut and cold  In humans, thermoreceptors in the pare and anterior hypothalamus send data to the body's thermostat in the posterior hypothalamus Thermoreceptors
  75. 75. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Pain Receptors  In humans, pain receptors, or nociceptors, detect stimuli that reflect conditions that could impairment creature tissues  By triggering defensive reactions, such as withdrawal from danger, hurting perception serves an important function  Chemicals such as prostaglandins worsen pain by increasing receptor sensitivity to baneful stimuli; aspirin and ibuprofen reduce pain by inhibiting synthesis of prostaglandins
  76. 76. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemoreceptors  General chemoreceptors transmit information about the total solute concentration of a solution  Specific chemoreceptors respond to private kinds of molecules  Olfaction (odor) and gustation (taste) both depend on chemoreceptors  Olfactory property is the detection of odorants carried in the air, and taste is detection of tastants nowadays in solution
  77. 77. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Humans can distinguish thousands of different odors  Humans and other mammals recognize only v types of tastants: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami  Taste receptors are organized into taste buds, generally constitute in projections called papillae  Any region of the tongue can detect any of the v types of taste
  78. 78. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Figure 38.18 Tongue Taste buds Sensory receptor cells Key Sensory neuron Taste pore Nutrient molecules Gustatory modality bud Papillae Papilla Umami Bitter Sour Salty Sweet
  79. 79. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 38.5: The mechanoreceptors responsible for hearing and equilibrium observe moving fluid or settling particles  Hearing and perception of torso equilibrium are related in near animals  For both senses, settling particles or moving fluid is detected by mechanoreceptors
  80. 80. © 2014 Pearson Didactics, Inc. Sensing of Gravity and Sound in Invertebrates  Most invertebrates maintain equilibrium using mechanoreceptors located in organs called statocysts  Statocysts contain mechanoreceptors that detect the motion of granules called statoliths  Most insects sense sounds with body hairs that vibrate or with localized vibration-sensitive organs consisting of a tympanic membrane stretched over an internal chamber
  81. 81. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.19 Statolith Ciliated receptor cells Sensory nervus fibers (axons) Cilia
  82. 82. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Hearing and Equilibrium in Mammals  In most terrestrial vertebrates, sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium are closely associated in the ear
  83. 83. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Figure 38.20 Outer ear Inner ear Center ear Malleus Skull bone Incus Stapes Semicircular canals Auditory nerve to brain Auditory canal Tympanic membrane Oval window Round window Eustachian tube Cochlea Pinna Auditory nerve Cochlear duct Organ of Corti Vestibular culvert Tympanic canal Bone To auditory nerve Tectorial membrane Basilar membrane Axons of sensory neurons Pilus cells Bundled hairs projecting from a hair cell (SEM) 1µm
  84. 84. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.20a Outer ear Inner ear Middle ear Malleus Skull os Incus Stapes Semicircular canals Auditory nerve to brain Auditory culvert Tympanic membrane Oval window Circular window Eustachian tube Cochlea Pinna
  85. 85. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.20b Auditory nerve Cochlear duct Organ of Corti Vestibular culvert Tympanic canal Bone
  86. 86. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.20c To auditory nervus Tectorial membrane Basilar membrane Axons of sensory neurons Hair cells
  87. 87. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Figure 38.20d Bundled hairs projecting from a hair cell (SEM) 1µm
  88. 88. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Hearing  Vibrating objects create pressure level waves in the air, which are transduced by the ear into nervus impulses, perceived as sound in the brain  The tympanic membrane vibrates in response to vibrations in air  The three bones of the center ear transmit the vibrations of moving air to the oval window on the cochlea
  89. 89. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The vibrations of the bones in the middle ear create pressure waves in the fluid in the cochlea that travel through the vestibular canal  Pressure waves in the canal cause the basilar membrane to vibrate and attached hair cells to vibrate  Bending of pilus cells causes ion channels in the hair cells to open or close, resulting in a change in auditory nervus sensations that the brain interprets as sound
  90. 90. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.21 Receptor potential More neuro- trans- mitter Time (sec) Membrane potential(mV) Point 0 i 2 three 4 v vi 7 (a) Bending of hairs in one direction −50 −70 0 −70 Receptor potential Less neuro- trans- mitter Time (sec) Membrane potential(mV) Signal 0 1 2 3 iv 5 six 7 (b) Bending of hairs in other direction −fifty −70 0 −70
  91. 91. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The fluid waves dissipate when they strike the round window at the end of the vestibular canal
  92. 92. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The ear conveys information most  Volume, the amplitude of the sound wave  Pitch, the frequency of the sound wave  The cochlea tin can distinguish pitch considering the basilar membrane is non compatible along its length  Each region of the basilar membrane is tuned to a particular vibration frequency
  93. 93. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Equilibrium  Several organs of the inner ear discover body motility, position, and balance  The utricle and saccule contain granules chosen otoliths that allow us to perceive position relative to gravity or linear movement  3 semicircular canals comprise fluid and can detect angular motion in any direction
  94. 94. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.22 Semicircular canals Vestibular nerve Vestibule Saccule Utricle Fluid period Nervus fibers Pilus cell Hairs Cupula Torso motility PERILYMPH
  95. 95. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 38.half dozen: The diverse visual receptors of animals depend on light-arresting pigments  The organs used for vision vary considerably among animals, simply the underlying mechanism for capturing light is the same
  96. 96. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Evolution of Visual Perception  Light detectors in animals range from simple clusters of cells that detect management and intensity of light to complex organs that course images  Lite detectors all contain photoreceptors, cells that contain light-absorbing pigment molecules
  97. 97. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Calorie-free-Detecting Organs  About invertebrates have a light-detecting organ  I of the simplest light-detecting organs is that of planarians  A pair of ocelli called eyespots are located near the head  These let planarians to motility away from light and seek shaded locations
  98. 98. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.23 LIGHT Nighttime Ocellus Ocellus Visual pigment Photoreceptor Nerve to encephalon Screening pigment
  99. 99. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc.  Insects and crustaceans take chemical compound eyes, which consist of upwards to several thousand calorie-free detectors called ommatidia  Chemical compound optics are very constructive at detecting movement Compound Eyes
  100. 100. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.24 2 mm
  101. 101. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Single-lens eyes are found in some jellies, polychaetes, spiders, and many molluscs  They work on a camera-like principle: the iris changes the diameter of the student to control how much calorie-free enters  The eyes of all vertebrates have a unmarried lens Single-Lens Eyes
  102. 102. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. The Vertebrate Visual Organisation  Vision begins when photons of light enter the eye and strike the rods and cones  However, it is the brain that "sees" Blitheness: Almost and Altitude Vision
  103. 103. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.25a Sclera Choroid Retina Fovea Cornea Suspensory ligament Iris Optic nerve Pupil Aqueous sense of humour Lens Optic disk Vitreous humor Central avenue and vein of the retina Retina Optic nerve fibers Rod Cone Neurons Photoreceptors Ganglion cell Amacrine cell Bipolar jail cell Horizontal cell Pigmented epithelium
  104. 104. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.25aa Sclera Choroid Retina Fovea Cornea Suspensory ligament Iris Optic nerve Student Aqueous humor Lens Optic disk Vitreous humor Fundamental artery and vein of the retina
  105. 105. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc. Effigy 38.25ab Retina Optic nerve fibers Rod Cone Neurons Photoreceptors Ganglion cell Amacrine prison cell Bipolar cell Horizontal prison cell Pigmented epithelium
  106. 106. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Effigy 38.25b DisksSynaptic terminal Prison cell torso Outer segment Cone Cone Rod Rod CYTOSOL Retinal: cis isomer Retinal: trans isomer EnzymesLight Retinal Opsin Rhodopsin Inside OF DISK
  107. 107. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.25ba DisksSynaptic terminal Cell body Outer segment Cone Cone Rod Rod
  108. 108. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.25bb CYTOSOL Retinal: cis isomer Retinal: trans isomer EnzymesLight Retinal Opsin Rhodopsin INSIDE OF Disk
  109. 109. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Effigy 38.25bc Retinal: cis isomer Retinal: trans isomer EnzymesLight
  110. 110. © 2014 Pearson Instruction, Inc. Figure 38.25bd Cone Rod
  111. 111. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Sensory Transduction in the Eye  Transduction of visual data to the nervous system begins when calorie-free induces the conversion of cis-retinal to trans-retinal  Trans-retinal activates rhodopsin, which activates a G protein, eventually leading to hydrolysis of cyclic GMP
  112. 112. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  When cyclic GMP breaks down, Na+ channels close  This hyperpolarizes the prison cell  The signal transduction pathway usually shuts off once more as enzymes convert retinal dorsum to the cis form
  113. 113. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.26 Active rhodopsin Transducin Low-cal Inactive rhodopsin Phospho- diesterase Disk membrane Membrane potential (mV) Plasma membrane Hyper- polarization Extra- CELLULAR FLUID INSIDE OF DISK CYTOSOL Dark Low-cal Time GMP cGMP Na+ Na+ −40 −70 0
  114. 114. © 2014 Pearson Pedagogy, Inc. Processing of Visual Data in the Retina  Processing of visual information begins in the retina  In the dark, rods and cones release the neurotransmitter glutamate into synapses with neurons called bipolar cells  Bipolar cells are either hyperpolarized or depolarized in response to glutamate
  115. 115. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  In the lite, rods and cones hyperpolarize, shutting off release of glutamate  The bipolar cells are then either depolarized or hyperpolarized
  116. 116. © 2014 Pearson Educational activity, Inc.  Signals from rods and cones can follow several pathways in the retina  A single ganglion cell receives information from an array of rods and cones, each of which responds to light coming from a particular location  The rods and cones that feed information to one ganglion jail cell ascertain a receptive field, the part of the visual field to which the ganglion cell can reply  A smaller receptive field typically results in a sharper prototype
  117. 117. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The optic fretfulness meet at the optic chiasm near the cognitive cortex  Sensations from the left visual field of both eyes are transmitted to the right side of the brain  Sensations from the correct visual field are transmitted to the left side of the brain  It is estimated that at least xxx% of the cognitive cortex takes part in formulating what we actually "see" Processing of Visual Data in the Brain
  118. 118. © 2014 Pearson Teaching, Inc. Color Vision  Amidst vertebrates, most fish, amphibians, and reptiles, including birds, have very good color vision  Humans and other primates are among the minority of mammals with the ability to run into color well  Mammals that are nocturnal usually have a high proportion of rods in the retina
  119. 119. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  In humans, perception of colour is based on three types of cones, each with a unlike visual pigment: ruby-red, green, or blue  These pigments are called photopsins and are formed when retinal binds to 3 distinct opsin proteins
  120. 120. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  Abnormal color vision results from alterations in the genes for one or more photopsin proteins  The genes for the ruby and green pigments are located on the Ten chromosome  A mutation in 1 copy of either gene can disrupt color vision in males
  121. 121. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.  The encephalon processes visual information and controls what information is captured  Focusing occurs by changing the shape of the lens  The fovea is the center of the visual field and contains no rods simply a high density of cones The Visual Field
  122. 122. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.UN01 Wild-type hamster Wild-type hamster with SCN from τ hamster τ hamster τ hamster with SCN from wild-type hamster Afterwards surgery and transplant Earlier procedures Circadianperiod(hours) 24 23 22 21 20 19
  123. 123. © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 38.UN03 Cerebral cortex Forebrain Hindbrain Midbrain Thalamus Pituitary gland Hypothalamus Spinal cord Cerebellum Pons Cerebrum Medulla oblongata

  • Figure 38.1 Of what use is a star-shaped nose?
  • Effigy 38.2 Nervous system organization
  • Figure 38.3 Glia in the vertebrate nervous organisation
  • Figure 38.3a Glia in the vertebrate nervous system (LM)
  • Figure 38.iv The vertebrate nervous arrangement
  • Figure 38.5 Functional hierarchy of the vertebrate peripheral nervous arrangement
  • Figure 38.6a Exploring the organization of the human brain (part 1: MRI)
  • Figure 38.6b Exploring the organization of the human brain (part two: brain development)
  • Figure 38.6ba Exploring the organization of the human encephalon (part 2a: brain evolution, nautical chart)
  • Figure 38.6bb Exploring the arrangement of the human encephalon (part 2b: brain development, embryo)
  • Effigy 38.6bc Exploring the arrangement of the human encephalon (function 2c: brain development, child)
  • Effigy 38.6c Exploring the organization of the human brain (office iii: cerebrum and cerebellum)
  • Figure 38.6d Exploring the organisation of the human brain (part 4: diencephalon and brainstem)
  • Figure 38.7 Dolphins can be comatose and awake at the aforementioned time.
  • Figure 38.eight The limbic system
  • Figure 38.9 Furnishings of addictive drugs on the reward organization of the mammalian brain
  • Figure 38.ten Functional encephalon imaging in the working brain
  • Effigy 38.10a Functional brain imaging in the working encephalon (part 1: happy music)
  • Figure 38.10b Functional brain imaging in the working brain (role ii: sad music)
  • Figure 38.11 The human cerebral cortex
  • Figure 38.12 Mapping linguistic communication areas in the cognitive cortex
  • Figure 38.UN02 In-text figure, Phineas Gage, p. 777
  • Figure 38.13 Comparison of regions for higher cognition in avian and human brains
  • Figure 38.14 Neural plasticity
  • Figure 38.15 Neuronal and non-neuronal sensory receptors
  • Figure 38.16 Coding of stimulus intensity by a single sensory receptor
  • Figure 38.17 Specialized electromagnetic receptors
  • Figure 38.17a Specialized electromagnetic receptors (part i: infrared)
  • Effigy 38.17b Specialized electromagnetic receptors (part 2: magnetic)
  • Figure 38.18 Human gustation receptors
  • Figure 38.19 The statocyst of an invertebrate
  • Figure 38.xx Exploring the construction of the human ear
  • Figure 38.20a Exploring the construction of the man ear (part 1: overview)
  • Figure 38.20b Exploring the structure of the human being ear (office 2: cochlea)
  • Figure 38.20c Exploring the structure of the human ear (part 3: organ of Corti)
  • Effigy 38.20d Exploring the structure of the homo ear (office four: hair cell, SEM )
  • Effigy 38.21 Sensory reception by hair cells
  • Figure 38.22 Organs of equilibrium in the inner ear
  • Effigy 38.23 Ocelli and orientation behavior of a planarian
  • Figure 38.24 Compound optics
  • Effigy 38.25a Exploring the structure of the human eye (part i)
  • Figure 38.25aa Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 1a: overview)
  • Effigy 38.25ab Exploring the structure of the human center (part 1b: retina)
  • Figure 38.25b Exploring the structure of the human center (part 2)
  • Figure 38.25ba Exploring the structure of the human eye (part 2a: photoreceptors)
  • Figure 38.25bb Exploring the construction of the human being eye (part 2b: rhodopsin)
  • Figure 38.25bc Exploring the construction of the human centre (part 2c: retinal isomers)
  • Figure 38.25bd Exploring the structure of the human center (office 2d: photoreceptors, SEM)
  • Effigy 38.26 Production of the receptor potential in a rod cell
  • Effigy 38.UN01 Skills exercise: designing an experiment using genetic mutants
  • Figure 38.UN03 Summary of key concepts: vertebrate encephalon regions

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